Supplying trees in an era of environmental uncertainty: identifying challenges faced by the forest nursery sector in Great Britain

In recent years, numerous articles have addressed management strategies aimed at assisting forests to adapt to climate change. However, these seldom take into account the practical and economic implications of implementing these strategies, notably, supply of forest plants and seed. Using semi-structured interviews with practitioners involved in the plant and seed supply chain in Great Britain, we highlight a series of practical and economic bottlenecks commonly encountered in the supply of locally sourced seed and domestically produced planting stock for native woodland and hedging markets. We find that adoption of alternative seed sourcing strategies, designed specifically to account for directional climate warming, is likely to exacerbate existing problems by adding further complexity to decisions nurseries make about tree species and seed origins to produce. The lack of long-term market predictability brought about by the current configuration of forestry grants and regulations and, in particular, the administrative systems for processing grant applications is identified as a major impediment to having a sustainable and competitive supply of home-grown and currently adapted planting stock. Finally, the time and effort it takes to supply healthy plants for native woodland creation projects deserves much wider recognition throughout the industry and will be crucial if planting objectives are to be met sustainably

Tree planting in organic soils does not result in net carbon sequestration on decadal timescales

Tree planting is increasingly being proposed as a strategy to combat climate change through carbon (C) sequestration in tree biomass. However, total ecosystem C storage that includes soil organic C (SOC) must be considered to determine whether planting trees for climate change mitigation results in increased C storage. We show that planting two native tree species (Betula pubescens and Pinus sylvestris ), of widespread Eurasian distribution, onto heather (Calluna vulgaris ) moorland with podzolic and peaty podzolic soils in Scotland, did not lead to an increase in net ecosystem C stock 12 or 39 years after planting. Plots with trees had greater soil respiration and lower SOC in organic soil horizons than heather control plots. The decline in SOC cancelled out the increment in C stocks in tree biomass on decadal timescales. At all four experimental sites sampled, there was no net gain in ecosystem C stocks 12–39 years after afforestation—indeed we found a net ecosystem C loss in one of four sites with deciduous B. pubescens stands; no net gain in ecosystem C at three sites planted with B. pubescens ; and no net gain at additional stands of P. sylvestris . We hypothesize that altered mycorrhizal communities and autotrophic C inputs have led to positive ‘priming’ of soil organic matter, resulting in SOC loss, constraining the benefits of tree planting for ecosystem C sequestration. The results are of direct relevance to current policies, which promote tree planting on the assumption that this will increase net ecosystem C storage and contribute to climate change mitigation. Ecosystem‐level biogeochemistry and C fluxes must be better quantified and understood before we can be assured that large‐scale tree planting in regions with considerable pre‐existing SOC stocks will have the intended policy and climate change mitigation outcomes

Has Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) co-evolved with Dothistroma septosporum in Scotland? Evidence for spatial heterogeneity in the susceptibility of native provenances

Spatial heterogeneity in pathogen pressure leads to genetic variation in, and evolution of, disease-related traits among host populations. In contrast, hosts are expected to be highly susceptible to exotic pathogens as there has been no evolution of defence responses. Host response to pathogens can therefore be an indicator of a novel or endemic pathosystem. Currently, the most significant threat to native British Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forests is Dothistroma needle blight (DNB) caused by the foliar pathogen Dothistroma septosporum which is presumed to be exotic. A progeny–provenance trial of 6-year-old Scots pine, comprising eight native provenances each with four families in six blocks, was translocated in April 2013 to a clear-fell site in Galloway adjacent to a DNB-infected forest. Susceptibility to D. septosporum, measured as DNB severity (estimated percentage nongreen current-year needles), was assessed visually over 2 years (2013–2014 and 2014–2015; two assessments per year). There were highly significant differences in susceptibility among provenances but not among families for each annual assessment. Provenance mean susceptibility to D. septosporum was negatively and significantly associated with water-related variables at site of origin, potentially due to the evolution of low susceptibility in the host in response to high historical pathogen pressure

Planting exotic relatives has increased the threat posed by Dothistroma septosporum to the Caledonian pine populations of Scotland

To manage emerging forest diseases and prevent their occurrence in the future, it is essential to determine the origin(s) of the pathogens involved and identify the management practices that have ultimately caused disease problems. One such practice is the widespread planting of exotic tree species within the range of related native taxa. This can lead to emerging forest disease both by facilitating introduction of exotic pathogens, and by providing susceptible hosts on which epidemics of native pathogens can develop. We used microsatellite markers to determine the origins of the pathogen Dothistroma septosporum responsible for the current outbreak of Dothistroma needle blight (DNB) on native Caledonian Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) populations in Scotland, and evaluated the role played by widespread planting of two exotic pine species in the development of the disease outbreak. We distinguished three races of D. septosporum in Scotland, one of low genetic diversity associated with introduced lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), one of high diversity probably derived from the DNB epidemic on introduced Corsican pine (Pinus nigra subsp. laricio) in England, and a third of intermediate diversity apparently endemic on Caledonian Scots pine. These races differed for both growth rate and exudate production in culture. Planting of exotic pine stands in the UK appears to have facilitated the introduction of two exotic races of D. septosporum into Scotland which now pose a threat to native Caledonian pines both directly and through potential hybridisation and introgression with the endemic race. Our results indicate that both removal of exotic species from the vicinity of Caledonian pine populations, and restriction of movement of planting material are required to minimise the impact of the current DNB outbreak. They also demonstrate that planting exotic species that are related to native species reduces rather than enhances the resilience of forests to pathogens

Participation in environmental enhancement and conservation activities for health and well-being in adults: a review of quantitative and qualitative evidence

PUBHLT

Microclimate variability and long-term persistence of fragmented woodland

Favourable microclimates are predicted to buffer fragmented populations against the effects of environmental change, but ecological timeseries are often too short to establish the extent to which such microsites facilitate population persistence through multiple climate shifts. We investigate the effects of microclimatic heterogeneity on woodland resilience through millennial climate and disturbance shifts near northwest European woodland range limits. We use palaeoecological data from northern Scotland to study the effects of fragmentation on community composition and diversity in a potentially favourable microclimate, and compare palynological timeseries of tree abundance from five sites to assess the effects of favourable (low-lying sheltered) versus more marginal (higher altitude) settings on population persistence and stability. The sheltered site shows persistence of tree cover through Holocene climatic and anthropogenic shifts, including climatically-driven regional woodland contraction around 4400calBP (calendar years before present), when surviving woods became compositionally differentiated into upland pine and low-lying deciduous communities. A favourable microclimate can thus buffer woodlands against environmental shifts and increase continuity of canopy cover, but it does not generate stable communities. Compositional reorganisation is an essential stress response mechanism and should be accommodated by conservation managers. The replacement of deciduous taxa byPinus sylvestrisafter 1060calBP represents the decoupling of pine distribution from climate drivers by management intervention. As a result, current microrefugial woodland composition reflects late Holocene human intervention. Alternative models of community composition and behaviour from palaeoecology provide a stronger foundation for managing microsite communities than relict woods in contrasting environmental settings

Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973; Cordon Survey

Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.The aim of this survey is to discover recreational and tourist activity of Scottish residentsMain Topics: Variables The Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973 consists of three groups of files: the Home Interview files, the Holidays files and the Cordon Survey files. The Home Interview Survey files (SN:2490) are based on 6938 interviews with 169 questions covering general matters, day trips, outdoor recreation, short stays, additional holidays, Scottish main holidays and theatre. The Holidays files (SN:2491) amalgamate data from both the Home Interview Survey files and the Cordon Survey files. Each case corresponds to a holiday, including short holidays and winter and early spring holidays for Scottish residents. The Cordon Survey files (SN:2492) are based on interviews with holidaymakers as they were leaving Scotland by rail, coach, ferry and plane. Different questionnaires were used at each cordon type, based on a common set of questions. The files consist of direct interview data, self-administered questionnaire data and route map and accommodation diary data

Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973; Holidays

Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.The aim of this survey is to discover recreational and tourist activity of Scottish residentsMain Topics: Variables The Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973 consists of three groups of files: the Home Interview files, the Holidays files and the Cordon Survey files. The Home Interview Survey files (SN:2490) are based on 6938 interviews with 169 questions covering general matters, day trips, outdoor recreation, short stays, additional holidays, Scottish main holidays and theatre. The Holidays files (SN:2491) amalgamate data from both the Home Interview Survey files and the Cordon Survey files. Each case corresponds to a holiday, including short holidays and winter and early spring holidays for Scottish residents. The Cordon Survey files (SN:2492) are based on interviews with holidaymakers as they were leaving Scotland by rail, coach, ferry and plane. Different questionnaires were used at each cordon type, based on a common set of questions. The files consist of direct interview data, self-administered questionnaire data and route map and accommodation diary data

Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973; Home Interview

<p>Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.</p>The aim of this survey is to discover recreational and tourist activity of Scottish residents<B>Main Topics</B>:<br> Variables<br> The Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973 consists of three groups of files: the Home Interview files, the Holidays files and the Cordon Survey files.<br> The Home Interview Survey files (SN:2490) are based on 6938 interviews with 169 questions covering general matters, day trips, outdoor recreation, short stays, additional holidays, Scottish main holidays and theatre.<br> The Holidays files (SN:2491) amalgamate data from both the Home Interview Survey files and the Cordon Survey files. Each case corresponds to a holiday, including short holidays and winter and early spring holidays for Scottish residents.<br> The Cordon Survey files (SN:2492) are based on interviews with holidaymakers as they were leaving Scotland by rail, coach, ferry and plane. Different questionnaires were used at each cordon type, based on a common set of questions. The files consist of direct interview data, self-administered questionnaire data and route map and accommodation diary data

Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973; Home Interview

Abstract copyright UK Data Service and data collection copyright owner.The aim of this survey is to discover recreational and tourist activity of Scottish residentsMain Topics: Variables The Scottish Tourism and Recreation Survey, 1973 consists of three groups of files: the Home Interview files, the Holidays files and the Cordon Survey files. The Home Interview Survey files (SN:2490) are based on 6938 interviews with 169 questions covering general matters, day trips, outdoor recreation, short stays, additional holidays, Scottish main holidays and theatre. The Holidays files (SN:2491) amalgamate data from both the Home Interview Survey files and the Cordon Survey files. Each case corresponds to a holiday, including short holidays and winter and early spring holidays for Scottish residents. The Cordon Survey files (SN:2492) are based on interviews with holidaymakers as they were leaving Scotland by rail, coach, ferry and plane. Different questionnaires were used at each cordon type, based on a common set of questions. The files consist of direct interview data, self-administered questionnaire data and route map and accommodation diary data